Oral Communicatoin IIb (autumn)

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(Scripts)

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(Key Expressions)

Chapter 1 No.1

Now, as you probably know, U.S. inner cities have been in a bad state for several decades.  They tend to be high crime areas with a lot of vacant buildings and so on.  Today we’ll talk about how this happened and what is being done about it.

Well, first, you can’t talk about the decline of the inner cities without looking at the growth of the suburbs, because the two are connected.  There was --- and still is --- a huge demand for suburban housing in the last 30, 40 years or so.  So what we’ve seen all over the country is a lot of development of areas just outside of cities --- areas that were once farmlands --- acres and acres of land just given over to suburban housing.  We call it “suburban sprawl” because of the way the houses are kind of spread out all over the countryside.

As the suburbs grew, the inner cities declined.  Well, you can imagine how this happens.  When people move to the suburbs it’s more convenient for them to shop at the shopping malls closer to home.  So the department stores in the downtown area, they don’t get as much as business, and maybe eventually they have to close.  You see this particularly in small and mid-size towns.  You might have an area that has quite a large population, but the downtown is dead --- especially at night.

As a result of that, we’ve had growing crime rates and poverty in downtown areas.  So people are afraid to go there at night, and there ends up being less cultural life in these towns.

So city planners have been trying to attract people back to the cities.  It’s become a necessity, really, because you can’t keep building suburbs forever, and people don’t want to commute two or more hours to get to their jobs.  They want to come back to live in the cities, but you have to make the conditions right.

So how do you do that?  Well, city planners are using an approach called “smart growth” as a way to plan neighborhoods and revitalize inner cities.  I’ll explain some of the main characteristics of smart growth. 

First, smart growth encourages diversity of use.  For example, many planners believe now that it’s healthy to have some light manufacturing --- say, bakeries or printing presses --- mixed in with retail and residential buildings, all together in the same area, and one reason to do this is that a street has people in it all day long.  You’ve got the people who work there during the day and the people who live there coming back in the evenings.  The area is used more.  Sidewalks are busy.  This makes it possible for stores and restaurants to open up to serve all these people, which in turn encourages more people, and then that makes a neighborhood more attractive.

OK, secondly, you want to have diversity of housing.  Instead of having streets and streets of identical houses, like you have in the suburbs, you would have a mix of single-family homes, townhouses, and apartment buildings that would encourage a wider range of people --- in terms of ages and income levels --- to live in an area so people can stay in a community.  They can move up to a larger house, or move to a smaller house when they get older, without leaving the community.

The other big aspect of smart growth is to make it possible for people to walk to schools, public libraries, stores, and so on.  So you put these things within walking distance of residential neighborhoods.  It’s also important to have attractive places outside--- places to gather or sit and relax.  This brings people out onto the streets.  And streets that have people in them are safer streets.  When you have safer streets, you have more people wanting to live downtown.  And that causes a demand for more housing, and that in turn revitalizes inner cities even more.

Now one city where this kind of thing is being done is Pittsburgh.  Let’s have a look at some photographs that were taken...

Chapter 1 No.2

A: Public spaces are the places where we interact with other people in our community: streets, shopping malls, public parks, and so on.  Public spaces have a huge impact on the quality of life of the people who use them, especially in cities.  Today we’re going to talk about parks.  Our guest is Charles Ong from the Parks Planning Association, and he’s going to tell us what makes a good public park.  Welcome to the program.

B: Thank you.

A: First of all, is there such a thing as a bad public park?  I mean, aren’t all parks good?

B: Well, no.  I think if you think about it, some parks just don’t work for one reason or another.  They’re not used, or they’re used for criminal activity.  They’re usually empty.  They’ve got litter and graffiti, or they’re just a green space put there with nothing to attract people.

A: Now that you mention it, I can think of a few places like that!

B: A good public park or any public space --- doesn’t have to be a park --- is above all, attractive.  People want to go there.

A: Give me an example of a public park that works.

B: Oh, there are lots.  Central Park, in New York, for example, is a great park.  There’s a lot to do there.  You’ve got several museums right around it, and in the park itself you have the Children’s Zoo, you have an outdoor theater, you have a skating rink, lots of playgrounds, community centers, and so on --- all of that brings people in.  Same kind of thing with Boston common, Balboa Park in San Diego, the Lakefront in Chicago.  I could go on.

A: But what about smaller parks?  You can’t always have an art museum or a zoo.

B: No, but the principle is the same.  If you’re designing a smaller park, you still need to provide enough activities.  And what you want to do is connect the activities to each other.  For example, let’s say you have a park with a playground in one corner, and a fountain in the middle.  Well, that’s nice, but there’s not enough there to attract people.  But if you link the two together --- say you make a water feature in the playground, or you make the fountain safe so that kids can play in it in the summer --- and if you add some good seating where people can watch both areas, they you provide more reasons for people to go there.  And if you add a food stand, they you’re getting somewhere.  Food always attracts people.

A: Right, I get it.

B: You want to have it used by different kinds of people.  You want children, and older people, and women --- and that, by the way, is often a good indicator of how successful a city park is.

A: What?  Women?

B: Yeah, women and elderly people.  Women are generally more aware of their surroundings.  They’re much less likely to sit down or relax in public area if they feel uncomfortable.

A: Right.  Now that I think of it, some places don’t even provide places to sit.

B: Yeah, seating is a big thing.  A lot of parks don’t have enough seating, or it’s uncomfortable, or the seats are out in the wind or the sun.  Ideally, people should be able to move the seats around.  You get that in some parks in Europe.  People can pick up a chair and move it wherever they want.

A: But that raises some security issues.

B: Yes.  It’s only possible where there’s a fairly good security presence.

A: What about access to a park?  You know when you spend ages trying to find the way in into a park?  I’ve had that experience.

B: Yeah, when you’re walking around and around looking for the entrance.

A: Yeah.

B: That’s a problem sometimes.  But it’s not just that.  Even if the entrance is visible, the interior has to be visible too.  You have to be able to see what’s inside.  You don’t want people feeling afraid to go in there, like they’re going to be mugged or something.  It has to be welcoming.

A: You need to see where the paths go too, right?  So you can say, “Oh, I’ll take a shortcut through the park, and that will take me over there, or over there”?

B: Right.  And one thing that drives me crazy in public parks is paths that don’t lead to anywhere, or that don’t go where people want to go.  They’re just there for the sake of it.  You want paths that attract people and pull them along.

A: It seems so obvious.

B: You’d think so, wouldn’t you?  But a lot of parks are put in with very little consideration of how to make them work.

Chapter 2 No.1

A: Hello, and welcome to our show.   Our guest today is Dr Lynette Han, a psychologist who does research into happiness.  She spends a lot of time studying people’s level of enjoyment during various activities, and she’s especially interested in something called “flow.”  Dr. Han, could you explain what flow is?B: Yes, it’s a concept described by a psychologist named Milaly Csiskszentmihlayi. He talks about states of optimal experience, where people say they experience feelings of deep concentration and enjoyment during activities.

A: Can you give us an example?

B: Of course.  Do you have an activity that you really enjoy?

A: Well I like a lot of sports and I love cooking.

B: OK, take cooking.  Think about making a meal.  If you ever get so absorbed in preparing the food that you lose all awareness of time and other things around you --- when you are concentrating so deeply that you completely forget all your problems --- then you’re probably experiencing flow.

A: Oh, I’ve had that happen, especially when I’m trying a new recipe.

B: Yes, you’re more likely to experience flow with a new recipe because that challenges you.  According to Dr. Csikszentmihlayi, one of the requirements for a state of optimal experience is that the activity has to be challenging and require skills.  So, you would use your cooking skills in a new recipe and it would be challenging because you hadn’t done it before.  Other requirements are deep concentration, a merging of action and awareness, a sense of control, clear goals, and immediate feedback.

A: Are there only certain types of activities where this can happen, or can it happen with any activity?

B: Well, flow can happen with a lot of different activities, from reading, to playing chess, to rock climbing; however, if you look at the requirements we just talked about, some activities wouldn’t fit.  Think of watching TV, for example.  You might concentrate deeply on watching a TV program, but there’s really no skill involved and it’s unlikely to be challenging.  Dr. Csikszentmihlayi actually uses a chart to show the relationship between challenge and skill that is necessary for flow to happen.  It involves low levels of boredom and worry, and high but balanced levels of skill and challenge.

A: OK.  I was a little surprised to see that reading is an activity that could create a state of flow, but now I understand.  Reading involves some level of skill and challenge in terms of understanding language, whereas watching TV doesn’t typically offer that.

B: Yes, that’s right.  Really there are so many activities that can lead to flow: singing, skiing, painting, and a lot of games that we play.

A: Is experiencing flow the same as feeling happy?

B: No, there’s definitely a difference.  If you’re in a state of flow, you’re attention is so focused that you aren’t even aware of how you feel about the situation.  Reflecting on whether you feel happy or not would mean you were out of flow.  It’s only later, after the state has passed, that you can be aware of the pleasure of that state.  So, in that way it’s different from flow.  And you can feel happy without experiencing flow.  For example, sitting on a beach might make you feel happy but not necessarily create a state of flow.

A: Why does all this matter?

B: Well, I believe, as Dr. Csikszentmihlayi does, that experiences of flow are pleasurable for people and contribute to quality of life.  So, if people are more aware of which experiences produce this state, they can work toward including more of them in their lives.

A: Well, thank you, Dr. Han.  We’re going to take a break right now...

Chapter 2 No.2

A=Interviewer, B= Julia

A: OK, Julia.  Now, from your responses it looks like, of the daily activities like housework and driving, you’ve rated driving as giving you quite high levels of enjoyment, motivation, and concentration.

B: Yes, I was surprised when I looked at my answers too.  I wouldn’t have expected it, but now I realize that driving is actually usually pleasant for me I mean, obviously not when there’s a huge traffic jam or anything, but otherwise I enjoy it.  I concentrate on driving, which usually means that I can’t worry about all my everyday concerns and problems.  I have about a half-hour drive to and from work, so it allows me to get ready for work on the way there and then relax and wind down on the way home.  I’m by myself and I usually listen to music or interesting programs on the radio.  So, I guess, all in all, it’s a pretty pleasant experience for me.

A: Another activity with high ratings was doing a hobby.  You indicate that you play the guitar?

B: Yes.  I was thinking of that when I answered the questions.  I usually play the guitar at least three times a week.  I play in a group with friends, and I play by myself, too.  I have to concentrate when I play, and I’m usually motivated too ---I don’t want to make a lot of mistakes when I play with my friends.  I just love playing.  When we get going on a new song, I just forget everything else that’s going on.

A: Overall, doing housework didn’t rate very high.

B: No.  Housework of any kind isn’t a favorite for me.

B=Leo

A: It looks like working with computers rated highly for you, Leo.  Do you work with computers at your job, or is it a hobby?

B: Actually, both.  I just love computers so much that there isn’t really that much difference between work and play for me when it comes to computers.  Computer programming is my job, but I also play a lot of computer games when I’m not working.  A friend and I are actually working on developing our own game to sell.  I guess some people might see that as work, but for us it’s fun.  We get together and start discussing it or working on it, and we can go for hours and hours without stopping.  We sometimes stay up until three or four in the morning if we’re trying to solve a problem or something.

A: Well, speaking of friends, it also looks like you rate socializing highly too.

B: Yes.  It might be a little surprising since many people think that people who love computers don’t socialize, but my friends are really important to me, and we get together a lot.  Of course, we talk about computers an awful lot, but we talk about other things, too.

B=Annie

A: OK, it seems like you enjoy really active things, Annie?

B: Yes, definitely.  I like almost any kind sport, really, and I do them as much as possible.  Soccer, tennis, running, whatever.

A: Do you prefer individual or team sports?

B: Well, both, really.  It depends on the mood I’m in.  I play soccer at least once a week, so that’s a team sport.  But then, I also run about three times a week, and that’s something I do alone.  So I guess it’s probably pretty much a mix of both.

A: What about your job?  You’ve rated it in the middle.

B: Yeah.  I’m an elementary school teacher, and I like that, but then I also coach some school sports teams: basketball and soccer.  I get enjoyment from teaching, but I think I like coaching more.

A: What about activities that are less active?  Do you participate in any?

B: Not very often.  I’m home a few evenings a week, and sometimes I sit down and watch TV, but it’s not all that often.

B=Robert

A: So, Robert, a lot of people don’t find pleasure in housework, but it looks like you rate washing dishes pretty high.

B: Yes, I know it might seem a little strange.  I’m an executive with a high-pressure job.  I’m busy all the time, and I like doing dishes?  But, it’s relaxing for me, and it often turns out to be good thinking time.  I’m surprised at how often I come up with solutions to problems while I’m washing dishes.  Then, it’s always satisfying when I finish and everything is completely clean.

A: It looks like work---your job---has medium rating.

B: Yes.  As I said, I have a pretty high-pressure job.  I like it and I’m good at it, but it’s challenging, and the stress gets to me.  So I’m usually really happy when the weekends come.

A: And what do you like to do on weekends?

B: Well, I’m pretty busy.  I have an old house that I’m fixing up.  I’m doing all the work myself, so there’s always something to do on that.  I enjoy bicycling too, and since I don’t have a lot of time during the week, I try to ride a lot on weekends.

Chapter 3 No.1

For many years, scientist have believed in the “wisdom of the body,” the idea that our bodies know what they need to stay healthy.  So, by this theory, when we’re hungry for a certain food, it’s just our bodies letting us know that we need a specific nutrient.  For example, you might crave steak because you need protein.

But this idea doesn’t cover the reality of our eating habits.  So much of what we love to eat---think of cookies or French fries--- doesn’t offer much nutrition.  And many people don’t like foods that offer lots of vitamins---think of spinach or broccoli.  So, the idea that eating only supports life doesn’t really offer a full explanation of our eating patterns.

For along time, there was a lot about our eating habits that was not fully understood by scientists, but in the last few years, new studies have given researchers more information.

One discovery is that humans are born loving sweetness.  On its first day of life, a newborn baby will prefer sweetened drinks to unsweetened ones.  Sugar can even block out pain. Doctors have found that babies won’t mind the pain of a needle for an injection as much if they are given some sugar beforehand.

Then there are sour tastes.  It’s often surprising how much young children love sour flavors.  Think of how many kinds of candy of children with really sour flavors there are: lemon, sour apple, and so on.  Candy companies must have realized this a while ago, but it was only recently that science confirmed it.  A study found that children between the ages of five and nine years old actually enjoy the flavor of concentrated citric acid, and citric acid makes things sour.

In contrast, bitter flavors are mainly appreciated by older adults.  Children and pregnant women usually dislike bitter tastes.  This is probably because bitterness can be a sign of toxicity---that something could be harmful---which would be more important during times of growth and development.

However, as people get older, they often develop more of a taste for goods with a little bitterness.  Scientists think this could make sense because foods like broccoli or dark chocolate--- both of which have a slightly bitter flavor---usually also contain antioxidants that help fight diseases like cancer.

So there are similarities in taste preferences, but then why are our individual preferences so different?  One explanation is that our preferences are shaped by our flavor experiences at a very early age, including before we’re born.  For example, one study found that if a pregnant woman drank carrot juice late in pregnancy, her six-month-old baby liked carrot-flavored cereal more than other six-month-old babies.

Another area of difference involves food cravings---intense and specific desires for a certain food.  Scientists now believe these are also probably more related to childhood and culture than to some kind of biological need for vitamins.

A study by psychologists on three continents---in the countries of Egypt, Spain, and the United States---looked at cravings by both men and women.  Before the study, one assumption was that women universally crave chocolate, however, while the study found that women often crave sweeter food than men, there were differences regarding chocolate.  In Spain, both men and women were found to crave chocolate.  But in Egypt, only six percent of women named chocolate as a favorite food.  So a conclusion is that cravings are not universal or based on biology, but are more the result of our cultural experiences with food.

Now family and culture don’t explain all of our individual differences in food preferences.  Obviously, there are people who have dramatically different preferences from their parents.  So there’s still more to learn.  Scientists are now paying a lot more attention to the psychology of food choice.  They may find that what we think about food could turn out to be as important as what we actually put in our mouths and eat.

Chapter 3 No.2

A=Host, B=Roger Sabarta

A: Good morning.  Today we’re going to talk about one of my favorite topics: food.  It’s something we can’t live without, yet we might take it for granted in some ways.  Have you ever stopped to think about how our appetites and eating habits have changed, or for that matter, considered how these habits might change in the future?  Our guest today is Roger Sabarta, a food scientist who’s done a lot of research in these areas.  Welcome Mr. Sabarta.

B: Thanks for having me.

A: So what’s one of the biggest changes in eating habits that you’ve found?

B: Well, I’d say that the biggest change, and really the one that also has the most implications for health and things like that, is the amount of eating out that most of us do nowadays.  In 1955 the percentage of food budgets spent away from home was 19 percent, and in 1997 it was 38 percent...and it just keeps going up.

A: I’d never really thought of it, but of course, thinking of my parents and how often they were likely to eat out compared to me in my life, well, it’s a lot different.

A: Exactly.  And then kids nowadays eat out even more often.  In the same 42 years from 1955 to 1997, fast food consumption increased 166 percent for teenage boys.

A: One-hundred and sixty-six percent?  Wow!  So teenage boys are eating a lot more fast food than they used to!

B: Yes, it’s really striking.  Now think of some of the effects of this change in habit.

A: I’d guess it probably isn’t all that healthy.

B: Not really.  For example, there’s soda and soft drinks versus milk.  Twenty or 25 years ago, people---especially kids--- drank a lot more milk.  Nowadays, drink about twice as much soda as they used to and a lot less milk.

A: And that’s because of eating out so much?

B: Yes, at least to some extent.   Of course there are other factors contributing to this.  The amount of advertising done by the food and drink industry goes up every year, so that certainly has an effect as well.

A: Does your research suggest that this trend will continue?

B: Pretty much so.  The strongest influence that we see on this is income.  If people have more income, they usually eat out more.  However, one factor that could affect this is age.  Older people typically eat out less than younger people, and since we expect the population of older people to increase, this could result in smaller numbers for eating out.

A: Unless of course older people change their habits and eat out more.

B: Absolutely.  It’s certainly possible.

A: What else does your research predict for the future?

B: Well, a demand for more variety in foods in definitely one thing.  We’ve already seen this change and we expect it to continue.  Just think of the variety of types of food available in supermarkets and restaurants these days.

A: You mean like Mexican food or Chinese food and things like that?

B: Or Indian food, or Thai food, and so on.

A: Hmm, yes.  There are so many different types of restaurants in my area compared to ten years ago.  I assume this is because of immigration?

B: Yes, that’s right.  As new populations come to the United States, of course they bring food traditions and preferences, so this definitely influences food trends.  And these can be positive influences.  For example, the consumption of citrus fruit is expected to rise over the next twenty years or so because of consumers coming from places where fruit is a big part of the diet.

A: Well, that would be good.

B: Another aspect of this is that people just want variety.  They may love a special new flavor of potato chip, but after a while, it becomes a little boring and they start looking for another new flavor.  So this will also produce continued variety in food options.

A: It seems like we already see this a lot.  There’s one flavor of something and then they have to make lots of different flavors.

B: Yes, that’s right.

A: Were there any surprises in your predictions?

B: Well, I was a little surprised that we expect people to want quality more than quantity in the future.  You know everyone seems to want quantity right now --- larger hamburgers, more French fries, and so on--- but our analysis suggests that this will change, that people will ask for more quality.  For example, they might want a special type of meat, rather than just a hamburger and things like that.

A: Yes, that is a little surprising.  Well, we have to stop here.  Thank you very much, Mr. Sabarta.

Chapter 4 No.1

A=Host, B=Sandra Ellis

A: Today we’re going to take a look at the latest hot trend among art collectors: Aboriginal art from Australia.  My guest today is Sandra Ellis, who is the owner and curator of the Pine Lake Museum of Aboriginal Art.  Welcome to the program.

B: Thank you.

A: Firstly, why do you think Aboriginal art has become so popular?

B: Well, one reason is that it’s very old.  The Aboriginal people ... they’re the original native Australians.  They live far from civilization, and they’ve had very little contact with outsiders, so they’ve maintained their culture---and their art---for generations.  You can go to remote areas in Australia and see rock carvings that date back at least thirty...30,000 years.  And you can look at the paintings today and these are done by the direct descendants of the prehistoric people.  And you’ll see the same images, the same symbols used in the art today.  They’ve survived for thousands of years.

A: I understand the art is connected to the belief system of the people in some way.

B: Yes.  To understand the art, you need to know a little bit about the beliefs of the Aboriginal people.  All of the paintings refer to what they call “The Dream Time.”

A: And what is that?

B: The Dream Time refers to the time when---according to the Aboriginal people---the world was created and mythical figures, spirits and animals, wandered around the Earth.  The people have stories about these figures and what they did.  They didn’t have a written language, so the stories were passed down from generation to generation, and the old people used the art as a way of telling the stories to the younger people.  That’s why most of the artists are older people.  They’ve memorized the stories.  Through the art, the people kept the stories alive.

A: What does a typical Aboriginal painting look like?

B: Well, you have different local styles, but what you generally see is lots of ...lots of lines and dots and circles.  So the effect is quite abstract and usually quite colorful.  But you’ll notice shapes and symbols that recur again and again.  For example, there’s a snake, which may represent water, or a river snaking through the desert.  Other figures might represent animals or people.  Some paintings work almost like maps they show a particular place, with water holes, and hills, and camps even.  These kinds of paintings are about a Dream Time story that happened in a particular place, but some of them also give information about the place, like the locations of water holes, and trails, and so on.

A: I see.

B: But the important thing is that for the artists, the art itself---the product---is really not important. It’s the doing of the art---the process---that’s important.  Traditionally the paintings were done as part of a ceremony, and they were done as body painting, or on the ground, and they they were washed away.  So they were temporary.  It’s only recently, since the 1970s in fact, that the art has ever been done on canvas or paper, so that it can be kept and collected.  But it’s still the process, really, that matters to the artists.

A: And yet their work now sells for tens of thousands of dollars.

B: Hundreds of thousands!  Yes.  One major painting sold for nearly $500,000 recently.  There are artists’ co-operatives all over Australia, and collectors come from all over the world now.  but thirty years ago, you couldn’t give the paintings away.  It’s only been recently that the art, and the culture really, has come to be recognized and valued for what it is.

Chapter 4 No.2

Now here you’re looking at one of the most well-known paintings in the United States---maybe the most well-known.  Now if you haven’t seen the painting itself, you’ve probably seen imitations of it in advertising and popular culture in general.  It’s been reproduced on posters, and T-shirts, and cartoons.  And a lot of famous people have had their photograph taken in this pose.  So it’s really an American icon.

American Gothic: It was painted in 1930 by Grant Wood.  Wood was a self-taught painter from the Midwest.  He was from Cedar Rapids-that’s a small town in Iowa.  He was well known locally and a lot of his work is landscapes of the local country, farming country.  Wood’s style is kind of folksy, a bit like folk art, but he was really more sophisticated than that.  He traveled to Europe several times, and he was influenced by Dutch and German art that he saw there, particularly 16th-century Dutch portraits, the ones that showed people standing in their homes, in their natural surroundings, holding some kind of significant object.  And you can see that influence here, in this painting, where the man is holding a pitchfork.

As you can see, the painting shows a couple standing in front of a house with a gothic window in the background.  Gothic in the title first and foremost refers to the style of the window in the house... like a church.  When we think of gothic windows, we usually think of the grand cathedrals of Europe, but here the windows are in a very ordinary looking house.

It's actually not clear whether the couple is supposed to be husband and wife. Some people say that, and others say they're father and daughter. This is one of the mysteries about this painting. Wood never said who they were supposed to be. What we do know is that the models for the painting were Wood's sister, who was thirty at the time, and his dentist, who was 62. At one point Wood suggested that they were father and daughter, but that might have been to spare his sister's feelings, because maybe he didn't want to suggest that she was as old as the dentist. We don't actually know.

The man and woman are wearing old-fashioned clothes.  Remember this painting was done in 1930, but the clothes are more like what people might have worn in the 1890s. The women has a dress with a pattern and with ruffles on it. You can imagine she probably made it herself. And the man is wearing black jacket farmer's overalls, and an old-fashioned type of shirt without a collar. He’s holding a pitchfork which is a symbol of an old-fashioned kind of farming.  In the background, you can see the house with the gothic window, and there's some plants on the porch downstairs.

Now, if you look at the detail of the painting you’ll see that the gothic lines in the window are also in the faces of the people themselves. They're kind of elongated. And the lines are sort of repeated in the pitchforks and in the lines of the man's shirt. So it's not just the house.  The Gothic theme is repeated in other parts of the picture.

For most people, the interesting thing about the picture is the expressions on the faces of the couple...because, although the style...of the painting is like folk-art or something like that. The people aren't idealized in any way. They look sort of unfriendly...you get the feeling that you're not welcome. They're kind of shutting you out. It's like ...they're defending their world from outsiders. The man looks as if he'd use that pitchfork as a weapon if necessary...And the woman looks...kind of suspicious...It's as if she's worrying about somebody stealing her laundry or something.

Because of the expressions on the faces and because of the title of the painting there was some bad...some negative reaction to it at the time. The word Gothic has a lot of kind of different connotations, but some of the meanings are dark, a little scary. And then other people point out that there's a contrast between the marvelous Gothic architecture in Europe, where you have all these beautiful cathedrals, and the architecture of the house here.

Many people think that Grant Wood was being ironic, poking fun at farmers or people in small towns. He himself said that that was not his intention. But then, you know, he had to live there. He had to live in a small town, so he couldn't say anything else.  The painting went on to become one of America's most famous paintings, but there's always been this mystery, about it. What was the artist really trying to say?  Nobody really knows for sure.  What do you think?

Chapter 5 No.1

A=Host,  B=Tanya Ruiz

A: Good morning and welcome to Science World. Our first story today takes us into the water, actually to the bottom of the ocean in some cases.   Tannya Ruiz has an interesting story about oceans and medical research.

B: Hello. So many of us love the ocean.  We love going to the beach and enjoying the sun, sand, and water. But, how often do you stop and think about how important oceans are? Not only do they provide a place for recreation, but they also give us food and energy and, more and more, oceans offer the possibility of new information for treating human disease, as well as new medicines.

Researchers have long searched the natural world---forests, swamps and rain forests---for substances to use in medicine.  In fact, more than half of all prescription drugs are derived from naturally occurring products.  And now scientists are looking to the oceans for their research.

Did you know that water covers about 71 percent of Earth's surface? Yes, 71 percent. And 97 percent of that water is in the oceans, so it's not surprising that oceans support the greatest variety of life on the planet. And now new technologies allow researchers to go deeper into the ocean, deeper than they’ve ever been able to go.  And as a result, it's possible to study fish and other sea life that they've never been able to study before. So scientists hope this will offer new, and possibly enormous, resources for the medical field.

Now, you may not realize it, but there are already some medical substance's in use today that were derived from the sea.  The horseshoe crab, a very old---actually ancient---marine creature, is one of the most famous examples. In the 1950s, scientists discovered that the blood of the horseshoe crab could protect it from bacteria, and they realized that this could be helpful in medical procedures for humans.  As a result, it's now commonly used in hospitals to test for contamination that would be  harmful to humans.  Current research focuses on a wide range of ocean life: from fish to coral, to whales, to mud on the bottom of the ocean.

One example is the skate fish. The skate fish has unique eyes and can see in total darkness. Researchers are studying how the eyes of this fish work with the hope of learning more about eye disease in humans, which often leads to blindness.

Another fish that scientists want to learn about is the toadfish.  The toadfish is a very unattractive fish, but it interests scientists because it can swim incredibly fast...about 40 times faster than a world-class human sprinter.  Researchers are studying the anatomy of the fish in the hopes of being able to use what they learn to help with, among other things, heart disease in humans. It makes sense that muscles that can work as fast as a toadfish's might give researchers dues about how to help human muscle that are failing from disease.

There's also a snail that scientists believe will offer a new painkiller. And then there's coral. There are substances from coral that researchers hope might offer a way to combat cancer. And finally, a possible innovation in washing clothes: a bacteria from whales that helps break down oily stains in laundry.  Obviously, this might help make a better laundry detergent some day.

So, there's a lot of variety in the research. Some scientists caution that this is all a very slow process, and that we have to be careful. It could take years for any one thing to be tested and proven safe and useful, but many researchers are still excited and hopeful.  And then, of course, everyone is aware that it's important to protect the oceans when we do this work.  But this gives us all a little more to think about next time we're lying on a beach in the sun. This is Tanya Ruiz for Science World.

Chapter 5 No.2

Hello everyone.  Welcome to the condor station.  I'd like to give you a little bit of history and background for our condor recovery program, and then I'll answer any questions you might have.

I'll start with some history. In 1987, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service captured the last condor in the wild and put it into a breeding program. Imagine, that was the last wild condor; and no one knew if the species could recover. Fortunately, the surviving condors mated and produced offspring. Now after: more than 17 years, there are 149 condors living in captivity and 99 flying free in

California, Arizona, and Baja, Mexico. More birds are being released into the wild whenever possible, and we know that at least five pairs of birds are mating in the wild. So that's good news.

Now you can guess that we'd want to keep track of the birds in the wild. So how do we do that? We've used different tracking systems, but now GPS---global positioning systems---attached to the birds give us our best information. Just so you can appreciate our work,

think of trying to attach one of the units to a bird with a nine-foot wingspan. Those wings could come close to knocking you out, and the beak is as sharp as the sharpest knife in your kitchen.  This part of the job can be challenging.

Anyway, GPS gives us a lot of data: geographic coordinates within 14 feet for up to 16 hours a day. This is very specific and useful information, One thing we've learned is that condors fly a lot mole distance in any day than we ever knew.

We’ve also discovered something that is very interesting and potentially even more helpful. We've found that the species is intelligent and much more complicated than we thought. Until now, we hadn't really known how much condors actually have to learn to survive in the wild, but we now know that they do indeed have to learn to survive.

An example of this comes from one of the mistakes we made in the early days of raising baby condors. We had humans taking care of the babies. The people wore puppets on their hands that looked like adult condors, but they didn't act like parent condors.  They just used the puppets to give the babies food.  Then, those babies were put together with other babies and had no contact with adult condors.

Now what we realized later was that, because of this approach, the baby condors didn't learn to be afraid of people. After they were released, they would approach people without any fear at all, begging for food at campgrounds and things like that. They acted like pets instead of wild animals. Obviously, this wasn't good.  After watching adult condors with babies, we realized that the parent condors taught the babies a lot about being cautious and defending themselves. The parent condors spent a lot of time harassing their babies---pecking at them and pushing them away when they're too curious---and this teaches them to be careful and to protect themselves.  

So now we consider this in raising baby condors. All the babies in the program are raised either by an adult condor or by a human wearing a puppet that looks like a condor.  The humans are trained to act like a parent condor---as  I said, pecking and harassing the babies.    We've found that baby condors raised in this way---actually taught to be cautious---are much more likely to avoid humans.

Another area we've learned a lot about because of the GPS monitoring is the way groups of condors relate and work together.   Condors are scavengers, so they need to look for dead animals to eat. Now you've probably never thought of it, but that's not the same as all animal that hunts for food. Think about it.  A scavenger is dependent on finding a dead animal to eat at the right time, or it goes hungry. So what we found is that condors actually share information about good locations for food. There's actually a kind of apprenticeship where condors work together.  A more experienced bird helps a less experienced bird learn where to find food. It's not really something you'd imagine birds doing, is it?

Another surprising point is how social these birds are.  Through the information from GPS units, we've found that birds actually do like to socialize.  One group of birds will travel about 160 miles down the coast to visit another group and hang out.  That's something many of us can relate to, although we might not travel 160n miles all that often, even to visit a good friend.

So that's some background on the condors. Why is this work important?  Well, first of course we’d like to have ,wild condors living without interference from us. But in a broader sense, we can always learn. As I've mentioned, we've found that condors are very intelligent, and their lives are more complex than we'd realized. So we never know what else we might learn, or how this information might apply to other animals' problems, or even people's problems, for that matter.

Chapter 6 No.1

OK, today we're going to look at the differences between the United States and Europe in terms of

working hours and time off.  As you've seen from the figures, there's a substantial difference. Europeans, on average, work less than we do in the United States.  They have a shorter workweek and better, longer vacations, and this does not seem to be changing in the near future. I'm going to suggest two reasons for this and then we'll open it up for discussion.

OK, first I'd like to point out that it wasn't...it hasn't actually always been like this. In fact, it's a fairly recent trend. It was American companies that introduced the two-week vacation first. And the 40-hour work week, in fact. Also, in the 1930s they introduced a 40-hour week at Henry Ford's motor plants, and that was before, well, before most European countries. A lot of Europeans

didn't get all Saturdays off until the 1960s or... even the '70s.  So it's only been in the last 30 or 40 years, in fact, that you see Europeans with...passing us in terms of leisure time.

So what happened to cause this? Well, there are two factors that I’d like to talk about, to do with European attitudes, and the other one to do with the American workplace.   Oh, and when I say American here, I mean the United States. I'm not talking about Canada here.  Anyway, first the Europeans have legislation.  They’ve introduced laws around leisure time.  For example, in the

1990s the French government reduced the work week to 35 hours.  The European Union actually requires now four weeks paid leave every year for all employees.  Many countries have more than that. Workers have bargained for five weeks, in countries like Germany and Italy. And that time is very important to European workers.   If you ever go to Europe in August, you notice it immediately: almost everything is shut down, and everyone's on vacation.

Now if you look at the countries that have not had legislation, these are precisely the places  where people tend to work longer hours. Britain is an example. They work longer hours there than in the rest of Europe. But they still work less---much less---than Americans do.  They expect their four-week vacation in the summer and if you took that away, people would get very upset.

Compare that to the United States. Well, here it's up to the employer to provide or not provide that vacation time. So while some employers do indeed provide excellent benefits of all kinds, including vacation time for their employees, the majority stick to the standard two weeks.  And something like twenty-two and a half million private sector employees don't get any paid vacation at all.

Now let's turn to the other factor in all of this, and that's the American workplace. The situation here is that there's less job security and workplaces are more competitive.  So companies can demand more. It's not unusual to see...for companies to demand more than 50 hours a week from top people.   And workers are afraid of losing their jobs, so they want the boss to see them working hard. So in some cases even though they're getting the vacation time, they don't ...they're not taking it. There's too much pressure, and that's happening at all income levels. European workers tend

to have more job security.

So I've described the main reasons for the differences between Europe and the United States in terms of working hours and leisure time. But really what it really comes down to is, I think, the Europeans have made a choice. Both Europe and the United States have become more prosperous, but the Europeans have chosen to take their prosperity in time, whereas Americans seem to just want to work harder and harder.

Chapter 6 No.2

A=Host, B=Man, C=Woman, D=Jenny Huang

A: Good morning, and welcome to the program.  According to a report out this week, the United States is still a nation of entrepreneurs: the number of single-person businesses, or people who are self-employed, has increased to seventeen and a half million, up from seventeen million last year; according to the U.S. Census Bureau. This morning, we look at the trend towards self-employment and freelancing that's happening all over the United States. But first, let's go out on the street and talk to some people who are on the front lines. What do you do?

B: I have three different jobs. I'm a substitute teacher, I write for a web site, and I volunteer at an art museum.

A: Wow.  How do you juggle all that?

B: Well, it's not all that bad. I only, teach for a couple of days a week, two or three days a week, usually. And I do the web site work at home...often during the evenings. So there's not that much conflict. You could call it variety.

A: So you enjoy working in three different places?

B: Right now, yeah. I...I really do.  Especially with the teaching. When you're a sub, you don't get...you don't get involved in the day-to-day stuff, or the paperwork, or the politics. You just go in and do the job, and then you go home. And it's flexible.  If I don't want to work, I don't have to. But if I feel that I need to work more, I ask for more teaching hours.  If I had a   full-time job, I think I'd get burned out. And I wouldn't be able to do the other work, which I really enjoy.

A: What about health benefits?

B: Well, I get health insurance through my life's job, so I don't have to worry about that.

A: Tell me about your job.

C: I've just set up my own baking business. I make cakes for special occasions---weddings and that sort of thing.

A: Really?  Why did you do that?

C: Well, I had a full-time job, but I got laid off. So I decided to go out on my own.

A: And how’s it going?

C: Well, I Don't' have very many expenses because I'm living and working at my parents' house, so I don't have to pay rent. It's going OK. I'm getting by.   It takes a while, you know, to get known. It's been a learning experience. I've learned a lot about managing a business.

A: What are your plans for the future?

C: Well, I need to work on marketing---getting out there and selling myself.  I'm not very good at that part of it.  Ideally I'd like to work with a partner that could do that.  Maybe I'd like to have my own place some day, but right now I'm just taking it a day at a time.

A: Back to the studio now, and if you've just joined us, the subject is the recent report that shows seventeen and a half million self-employed people in the United States. We're talking to labor specialist Jenny Huang.  Welcome to the program, Jenny.

D: Thank you.

A: Jenny, Can you tell us who these seventeen and a half million people are?

D: Well, there are different types of people in this category. There are the entrepreneurs, like the young lady that you interviewed, the ones that have their own one-person business.  They're the ones we usually think of when we think of self-employment. But then there are freelancers, who might go to work in different places, or work on a contract basis. And there are the people who are employees but who also work for themselves part-time, like the first person you spoke to.

A: What kind of work do these people do?

D: Well, the greatest rise in self-employment has been in  professional and business services. That would include people like freelance Web designers, marketing consultants, and so on. The second biggest category is construction workers. That would include carpenters, painters, electricians, and so on, who work for themselves.

A: And why do you think self-employment is on the rise?  Are we really a nation of entrepreneurs, or is there something else going on here?

D: Well, some of it's economic. There are people who've been laid off, so they've decided to go out on their own.  Another reason is the growth of the software industry and the media, where they've always used a lot of freelancers: writers, and programmers, and so on. There are a lot of people working in those areas now. But there's also been a change in attitude's. There are more people who want the advantages of self-employment.  They’re finding it preferable, being able to  manage their own time, for example.

A: They want to have more control over their own schedules.

D: Exactly.

A: What are the downsides to self-employment?

D: Well, a lot of people underestimate the amount of time you have to put into the business side of things, especially marketing, and especially at the beginning.  It's not enough to be good at something. You have to be able to sell yourself. Some people should just never go into self employment because marketing isn't their strength.

A: Uh-huh.

D: The other thing is to be organized, especially with your time. You have to be able to manage your time.  You need a business plan, and you really have to be very organized to be a successful freelancer.

Chapter 7 No.1

A=Lecturer,  B=Audience Member 1,

C=Audience Member 2

A: Good afternoon, today's lecture is about different languages  spoken in the United States.  The Modern Language Association has put together data on the numbers of speakers and the locations of the thirty most commonly spoken languages in The United States.

Let me first explain how the information was gathered, The data came from U.S. census information.  In addition to the usual census questions about number of family members and age, people were asked about language---if a language other than English was spoken at home" If the answer was "Yes," then the person was asked to name the language. 

You might be surprised at how many different languages were reported: 300. Yes, 300 different languages are spoken in the United States. The modem language Association focuses on the thirty most common languages.  Of course, English is the number one language, Spanish is the second most common, Chinese is the third, and French is the fourth.

Now the modem Language Association has put all this information together indifferent ways, so for example, you can look up a particular language, let's say, Korean, and see how many speakers there are throughout the United States. There are almost 900,000 Korean speakers in the United States. Then, you can see how that compares to the total number of speakers of languages other than English. So of the people who speak another language, 2 percent are Korean speakers. It's also possible to see how many Korean speakers there are in different areas.  Two main areas of concentration are Southern California and Washington State.

Now another way you can look at the information is by starting with place the entire United States, a state, a county, or a city, so, for example, looking at the state of Texas ...in Texas, English is spoken at home by just over 68 percent of people.   Of the people who speak another language, 86 percent speak Spanish. and it's only 1 or 2 percent for any of the other languages.  So Spanish really is the predominant language other than English in Texas. Now you can then compare that information to other states. For example looking at the state of New York...in New York, a little over 72 percent of people speak English at home. Of  the speakers of other languages, 49 percent speak Spanish and then 8 percent speak Chinese, 6 percent speak Italian, and 4 percent speak Russian, and 4 Percent speak French. So you can see that there are a lot of Spanish speakers in New York, but there are also other languages spoken---more so than in Texas.

OK. so there are different ways to look at this data.  Let's talk about possible ways this information could be used or why it's important. I'd like to open this up for discussion. Do you have any ideas? Yes, in the front row?

B: I think this could be important for educational purposes. You know, so people know what kinds of classes might be needed in the schools and things like that. And I think it's also important to understand the cultural make-up of the United States.

A: Yes, definitely. Anyone else? Yes?

C: Isn't it also important to be aware of possible language change. You know, if one language is being used less or more over time?

A: Yes, absolutely.   OK, we're out of time, but we're going to talk about language change next week, so we’ll discuss it more then,

Chapter 7 No.2

A=Claudia, B=Alan

A: Our presentation today is on language change and language loss in the world.  First we’ll talk about what the situation is, and then we'll give some examples of programs being implemented. Alan, do you want to begin?

B: OK. First, some background on the situation. There are actually differing views on how many languages exist in the world today.  Most estimates say that there are somewhere between 6,000 and 6,800 languages still in use. Unfortunately many of these languages are in danger of disappearing of becoming extinct. Now, it's hard to find an exact estimate on how many, but some people believe that as many as half of the languages still in use could be lost by the end of the century. Think of it: half of the languages that exist.

A: Here's a more specific example of how languages are being lost. An article in the magazine Nature in 2003 states that there are 46 different people around the world who are the last remaining speakers of their language.

B: Wow. Imagine if you were the only speaker of your language left.

A: Yes. Now, one of the problems with all this is that it's very difficult to get complete agreement on actual language numbers and then it's also hard to find agreement on the number of languages that are at risk of disappearing. One of the big reasons for this is that the criteria used are often very different.

B: Let's look at an example. For instance, some researchers might consider a language in danger if there are less than 10,000 speakers of it left while other researchers might not consider a language in danger until there are only 500 speakers left. The point is that different researchers have different ideas about when they might say that a language is really in danger of disappearing, so it's a problem. 

A: But for the most part they all agree that languages are in fact disappearing.

B: Oh yes, that's true. And most agree that it's happening quite quickly.

A: So, then the question is why is this important? Should we be concerned about language loss? Obviously, people might have differing opinions on this. Some people might say that it doesn't matter too much. That, in fact, fewer languages could make it easier to communicate.

B: Another viewpoint is that it is important, that we don't actually know what information, traditions, or things like that we're losing when a language disappears.

A: So that's the situation in terms of language loss. The good news is that, there are some actions that appear to help. And there are some examples of languages that are in a better state than they were. For example, Welsh, the language spoken in Wales. There were

fewer and fewer speakers of Welsh in Wales as more people started speaking English exclusively. But the country started working very hard to increase the number of speakers of Welsh: teaching and using Welsh in the schools and encouraging the use of Welsh in public forums, and there has been some progress.

B: Native American languages in North America are another example. There were once more than 250 languages spoken by Native Americans.  Unfortunately, experts now estimate that there are only about 150 languages still in use, and even more unfortunate, experts think that very few of these are likely to exist in 60 years. But, there are some interesting programs being used to try to keep some of the languages alive. Claudia, can you give some examples?

A: Yes. One typical problem is that in many cases the remaining speakers are elderly. So they’re trying to take advantage of the older people's knowledge while they still can. They tape-record the older people who can speak their language, in order to have an audio record of the language.  In some cases, they also might have a linguist work with the older people to get information about grammar and vocabulary. It's a little sad, but obviously, having all that information recorded gives the possibility that they can still work on the language even after these remaining speakers are gone...Another way they use the knowledge that the elders have is by having the older people work with the children. They baby-sit, or help with preschool, and speaking the language. They're doing this with the Navajo language in the Southwest.

B: It's interesting because in some places distance is a real problem.

A: Like in Alaska?

B: Yes, Alaska is a good example. People might not be able to get together to speak because of distance, so they teach and learn over the phone.

A: Now as Alan mentioned, with some of the Native American languages there are actually no longer any living speakers.  So there are also some examples where people are trying to learn the language of their ancestors by studying old records. Obviously, this would be a very difficult process.

B: Yes, and it is important to say that these kinds of programs are difficult, and slow. In the end, they may not be enough.

A: Yes, true. Are there any questions?

Chapter 8 No.1

A=Presenter, B=Writer

A: Can you tell us a little bit about your current project?  What are you working on now?

B: I'm writing a book about some of the most important technological inventions of the 19th and early 20th centuries. It's about how things like the typewriter or the fax machine were developed, and so on.

A: That sounds really interesting.

B: It is. It's fascinating. The personalities behind the inventions are particularly fun to read about. Like...a lot of inventors were amateurs, and some of them were considered to be nuts...crazy! But they had this...incredible determination. They believed absolutely in what they were doing.

A: Umm.

B: Take George Eastman, for example. He was a keen photographer and he was about to go on vacation to the Caribbean, to take pictures. But then the night before he was supposed to leave, he looked at all of this photo gear and in the 1870s the photo gear was incredibly cumbersome, all, you know, glass plates and chemicals and...equipment and so on---and he said to himself, "I'm not carrying all this stuff."  There's got to be an easier way to take photographs!  So he canceled his vacation, quit his job, stayed home, and invented film instead.

A: That's great!

B: The guy was a bank clerk, twenty-four years old! But that was the mood at the time, you know? Talk about a positive attitude! It was a real can-do spirit" People were asking questions: "Hmmm. I wonder if we could have a machine that does this?" or you know, "why can't we do that?" And then they would set out to do it, and they wouldn't give up'

A: But then they also discovered things by accident?  Oh yes, like the microwave oven. The microwave oven was actually developed from the magnetron...that's the power tube that drives a radar machine. One day, this scientist---Percy Spencer was his name---was standing next to a magnetron, and he had a chocolate bar in his pocket. And the chocolate melted. So he said, “Huh. That's interesting." So the next day he came in with popcorn, and guess what happened?

A: Pop.

B: And, that essentially was where the idea of the microwave came from...just by chance, really. It was called a "Radarange" because of the radar. Of course, it took a while to be developed, and so on, but...

A: But that happened too, didn't it? A lot of things didn't take off immediately, didn't necessarily find a market, right?

B: Right. Some products were just not in the right place at the right time. The classic example of that was the fax machine. I bet you didn't know we had fax machines before we had telephones.

A: Really?

B: Yes. The French were using very effective fax machines in the 1860s, before the telephone, in fact.  But the idea never took off. At that time, people were more interested in the telegraph.

A: That's amazing.

B: Yes. People have to be ready for a new thing before they'll accept it. It took Remington years to convince people to use a typewriter. Everybody said, "Oh, it's great, it's the wave of the future, it's a wonderful machine," but they wouldn't, you know...for ten years it didn't sell. And that was because letters were handwritten, that was what you did. There was a whole art to writing letters. People didn't think it was appropriate to type them, because what was typeset was mainly used for advertising. So if people got a typewritten letter, they were either offended, or they thought it was junk mail.

A: I guess you had to convince enough people at one time.

B: Right! Eventually businesses started using them.  And then everyone had to have one. But it took about ten years for the typewriter to become really popular.

Chapter 8 No.2

A=Guide, B =Visitor 1, C=Visitor 2, D=Visitor 3

A: Good morning everybody! Welcome to the Museum of Technology! My name is Greg, and I'll be your tour leader today. Now, if you'd like to step this way...we're going to look at this machine over here...Now, first of all, can anybody guess what this is?

B: It looks like something for writing, or printing.

A: Yes. This is actually the first photocopy machine.

All: Aha! Oh yes!

A: This was one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century. Fortune magazine called it "the most successful product ever marketed in America." ...And this technology is essentially the same technology that is used in laser printers today!... Just think for a moment how often you use a photocopy machine, or a laser printer.  And this is Chester Carlson, the inventor of the photocopy machine. He invented the process of xerography--- that's basically what happens in a photocopy machine---in 1937....First I'm going to tell you a little bit about him, and then we'll look at how xerography works. OK?

All: OK.

A: Chester Carlson was born in Seattle, and he was the only child of a barber.  His father was sick and couldn't work, and the family was very poor. His mother died when he was a teenager; so he had to support his father. At one point the two of them lived in a chicken coop with a bare concrete floor!

But he was a good student, and...and he was very interested in science. He put himself through college, first junior college and then the California Institute of Technology. All the time he did odd jobs to support himself and his father. He always knew that he wanted to be an inventor, because he figured that if he invented something, it would be a way out of poverty.  He kept notebooks...full of all kinds of ideas. One of his ideas was...a raincoat with like, gutters on it to keep water off your pant legs...Another idea that he had was...a toothbrush with bristles that you could replace. He was an inventive type of guy.

Anyway, when he graduated he got a job in New York, and got married, but he still wanted to invent something, so he went to law school to find out about the legal aspects of inventions. He wound up spending a lot of time in the New York Public Library, and he had to copy pages longhand from law books because he couldn't afford to buy them. It's hard for us to imagine that nowadays, but without photocopiers, you either had to copy everything by hand...or had to buy the book. There wasn't any other option!

So Carlson started thinking about a machine that would duplicate documents. He came up with the idea for this machine, which basically uses photoconductivity. It's a process whereby you use electricity and light to create an image. This machine was his prototype, and it was made in 1938.  He used his own money to make it, because he couldn't convince anyone that it would work.  He knew he had a good idea, but nobody would invest in it. He was turned down by more than twenty companies! Finally, in 1944, he got some money from a research company...to do more research.  And then in 1947 a small company in Rochester in New York---it was called Haloid---agreed to develop the machines.

But the process was so complicated, that it took a long time...and a lot of money to get the process right. A lot of the scientists at the company wanted to drop it altogether. But Carlson kept pushing them, and finally in 1960---that's years later!---they sold the first automated copier. It weighed 650 pounds!...But as soon as it got into offices, you can imagine what happened.

C: They liked it.

A: They loved it. It sold like hot cakes. Think about how often the average office uses a photocopier today.  Haloid changed its name, and I think you can guess the new name.

D: Xerox?

A: Yes. Haloid became The Xerox Corporation"

B: What about Carlson?

A: He became very rich! He earned about two hundred million dollars from his invention. And that was in the 1950s, so the money was worth a lot more than it is today. But he was very modest about it. He only ever had one car.  People said, if you met him, you'd never know he was so rich. He actually gave away most of the money.

C: Really?

A: He gave millions of dollars to charity...paid for schools...libraries. And he never allowed his name to be mentioned. He donated a lot of money for a building at the university where he had studied, but he named the building after the teacher who had inspired him the most.

C: That's an incredible story.

A: It is, isn't it? Now, let's look at the machine. Does anybody know how a photocopy is made?

D: Is it some kind of photographic process?

A: No, it's not photographic. As I said, it uses electricity, and light, basically, to create an image.

Chapter 9 No.1

A=Host 1, B = Host 2

C=Edna Sullivan, D=Victor Rodriguez

A: Time now to look at our mailbox for some of the reactions to last week's show.

B: If you were watching last week, you will remember that the show looked at advertising: how much of it there is, where it's done, and who is being targeted.  In particular; we looked at the growing trend towards advertising in schools.  We had a lot of e-mails and phone calls in response to that program. Here's Edna Sullivan from Huntington, West Virginia:

C: I don't mind advertising on billboards and bus shelters, and I’ve gotten used to seeing ads on

lampposts, and trashcans, and supermarket floors and elevators and all the rest of it. But I was very upset by some of the advertising that you showed in places of natural beauty, like the billboards in the desert.  It looks awful to have advertising in places like that. Our landscape is a precious resource, and I don't think it should be spoiled by advertising.

B: For a different point of view let's read an e-mail we received from Robert Bianchi in New York. He said, "Companies have to attract customers in order to survive. That is the nature of our economy. Successful businesses are the ones that know how to do that.  No matter how good your product is, if you can't attract customers you won't succeed.  We should remember that without advertising, many companies, and the jobs that they provide, would simply not exist, and we'd all pay a lot more for the products and services we take for granted."

A: The segment on advertising in schools generated a lot of responses" Here's Victor Rodriguez, from Albany, New York.

D: I am shocked at how much marketing is geared toward...purposely geared toward young children that are just too young to know that...that they're being marketed to. I'm a parent, and I can't even allow my children to watch network TV stations because of all the commercials. It just encourages them to want the latest toy or whatever. Another thing, I am concerned about the advertising that's turning up in our local elementary school.  It's in my kids' schoolbooks, posters on the walls, and school lunches, for example. I think it's wrong. School is not the place for advertising.

B: Laura Wellman, a high school student from Boulder Colorado, disagrees. She says in an     e-mail, "I don't have a problem with advertising in schools. As a teenager, I'm surrounded by advertising all the time, but I don't necessarily buy the products that are advertised. A couple of extra ads on the drink machines or on the school bus really wouldn't make any difference to me. I probably wouldn't even notice them. If a company wants to sponsor our soccer team in exchange for their name on our shirts, that's fine with us."

A: Finally here's an e-mail from Sarah Cohen from Baltimore. She Says, "I would like to have seen more specific guidelines for parents on how to help children deal with the thousands of commercial messages that they face every day. Teenagers in particular are very influenced by advertising. They should be taught to be more critical of the advertising that they encounter, to ask pointed questions about the products, and above all not to believe everything that they see in an ad."

B: And with that thought, we'll leave you until next week. Thank you for watching, and remember to send your comments on this week's program...

Chapter 9 No.2

Chapter 10 No.1

Chapter 10 No.2

Chapter 11 No.1

Chapter 11 No.2

Chapter 12 No.1

Chapter 12 No.2

Chapter 1 No. 1 Key words

Chapter 1 No. 2 Key words

Chapter 2 No. 1 Key words

Chapter 2 No. 2 Key words

Chapter 3 No.1 Keywords

Chapter 3 No.2 Key words

Chapter 4 No.1 Keywords

Chapter 4 No.2 Keywords

Chapter 5 No. 1 Key words

Chapter 5 No.2 Keywords

Chapter 6 No. 1 Keywords

Chapter 6 No. 2 Keywords

Chapter 7 No. 1 Keywords

Chapter 7 No.2 Keywords

Chapter 8 No.1 Keywords

Chapter 8 No.2 Keywords

Chapter 9 No.1 Keywords

Chapter 9 No.2 Keywords

Chapter 10 No.1 Keywords

Chapter 10 No.2 key words

Chapter 11 No. 1 keywords

Chapter 11 No.2 Key words

Chapter 12 No.1 Keywords

Chapter 12 No.2 Keywords

Chapter 1 No.1 key expressions

(1) So what we’ve seen all over the country is a lot of development of areas just outside of cities --- areas that were once farmlands --- acres and acres of land just given over to suburban housing.

(2) So the department stores in the downtown area, they don’t get as much as business, and maybe eventually they have to close. 

(3) So people are afraid to go there at night,

(4) many planners believe now that it’s healthy to have some light manufacturing --- say, bakeries or printing presses

(5) So you put these things within walking distance of residential neighborhoods.

Chapter 1 No.2 Key expressions

(1)  I think if you think about it, some parks just don’t work for one reason or another. 

(2)  Now that you mention it, I can think of a few places like that!

(3)  You’ve got several museums right around it

(4)  You can’t always have an art museum or a zoo.

(5)  And what you want to do is connect the activities to each other. 

(6)  you make the fountain safe so that kids can play in it in the summer

(7)  They’re much less likely to sit down or relax in public area if they feel uncomfortable.

(8)  They’re just there for the sake of it.

(9)  But a lot of parks are put in with very little consideration of how to make them work.

Chapter 2 No.1 Key expressions

(1) could you explain what flow is?

(2) OK, take cooking.

(3) a state of optimal experience

(4) you’re more likely to experience flow with a new recipe because that challenges you. 

(5) it would be challenging

(6) a merging of action and awareness,

(7) a sense of control, clear goals, and immediate feedback.

(8) it’s unlikely to be challenging.

(9) If you’re in a state of flow,

(10) sitting on a beach might make you feel happy

Chapter 2 No.2 Key expressions:

(1) you’ve rated driving as giving you quite high levels of enjoyment

(2) I have about a half-hour drive to and from work

(3) so it allows me to get ready for work on the way there and then relax and wind down on the way home.

(4) I just love computers so much that there isn’t really that much difference between work and play for me when it comes to computers.

(5) We get together and start discussing it or working on it, and we can go for hours and hours without stopping.

(6) It depends on the mood I’m in.

(7) it’s always satisfying when I finish and everything is completely clean.

(8) the stress gets to me.

Chapter 3 No.1 Key expressions

(1)   it’s just our bodies letting us know that we need a specific nutrient.

(2)   the idea that eating only supports life doesn’t really offer a full explanation of our eating patterns.

(3)   One discovery is that humans are born loving sweetness.

(4)   It’s often surprising how much young children love sour flavors.

(5)   Scientists think this could make sense because foods like broccoli or dark chocolate-

(6)   One explanation is that our preferences are shaped by our flavor experiences at a very early age, including before we’re born

(7)   there were differences regarding chocolate.

Chapter 3 No.2 Key expressions

(1) It’s something we can’t live without, yet we might take it for granted in some ways.

(2) how often they were likely to eat out compared to me in my life, well, it’s a lot different.

(3) For example, there’s soda and soft drinks versus milk.

(4) Nowadays, drink about twice as much soda as they used to and a lot less milk.

(5) Unless of course older people change their habits and eat out more.

(6) You mean like Mexican food or Chinese food and things like that?

(7) It seems like we already see this a lot.

Chapter 4 No.1 Key expressions

(1) the latest hot trend

(2) You can go to remote areas in Australia and see rock carvings that date back at least thirty...30,000 years. 

(3) And you can look at the paintings today and these are done by the direct descendants of the prehistoric people. 

(4) All of the paintings refer to what they call “The Dream Time.”

(5) you have different local styles,

(6) But it’s still the process, really, that matters to the artists.

Chapter 4 No.2 Key expressions

(1) It’s been reproduced on posters, and T -shirts, and cartoons.

(2) And a lot of famous people have had their photograph taken in this pose.

(3) He traveled to Europe several times, and he was influenced by Dutch and German art that he saw there, particularly 16th-century Dutch portraits, the ones that showed people standing in their homes, in their natural surroundings, holding some kind of significant object.

(4) the painting shows a couple standing in front of a house with a gothic window in the background.

(5) Gothic in the title first and foremost refers to the style of the window in the house... like a church.

(6) Wood never said who they were supposed to be.

(7) They look sort of unfriendly...you get the feeling that you're not welcome.

(8) Grant Wood was being ironic, poking fun at farmers or people in small towns.

Chapter 5 No.1 Key expressions

(1)

In fact, more than half of all prescription drugs are derived from naturally occurring It

(2)makes sense that muscles that can work as fast as a toadfish's might give researchers clues about how to help human muscle that are failing from disease

Chapter 5 No.2  Key expressions

(1) I'll start with some history.

(2) Imagine, that was the last wild condor; and no one knew if the species could recover.

(3) now GPS---global positioning systems---attached to the birds give us our best information.

(4) This part of the job can be challenging.

(5) GPS gives us a lot of data: geographic coordinates within 14 feet for up to 16 hours a day.

(6) Until now, we hadn't really known how much condors actually have to learn to survive in the wild, but we now know that they do indeed have to learn to survive.

(7) Now what we realized later was that, because of this approach, the baby condors didn't learn to be afraid of people.

(8) So now we consider this in raising baby condors.

(9) All the babies in the program are raised either by an adult condor or by a human wearing a puppet that looks like a condor.

(10) Through the information from GPS units, we've found that birds actually do like to socialize. 

(11) But in a broader sense, we can always learn.

(12) As I've mentioned, we've found that condors are very intelligent, and their lives are more complex than we'd realized.

(13) So we never know what else we might learn, or how this information might apply to other animals' problems, or even people's problems, for that matter.

Chapter 6 No. 1 Key expressions

(1) OK, today we're going to look at the differences between the United States and Europe in terms of working hours and time off.

(2) Europeans, on average, work less than we do in the United States.

(3) I'm going to suggest two reasons for this and then we'll open it up for discussion.

(4) So it's only been in the last 30 or 40 years, in fact, that you see Europeans with...passing us in terms of leisure time.

(5) The European Union actually requires now four weeks paid leave every year for all employees. 

(6) A lot of Europeans didn't get all Saturdays off until the 1960s or... even the '70s.

(7) so they want the boss to see them working hard.

Chapter 6 No. 2 Key Expressions

(1) According to a report out this week, the United States is still a nation of entrepreneurs: the number of single-person businesses, or people who are self-employed, has increased to seventeen and a half million, up from seventeen million last year; according to the U.S. Census Bureau.

(2) I have three different jobs. I'm a substitute teacher, I write for a web site, and I volunteer at an art museum.

(3) How do you juggle all that?

(4) So there's not that much conflict.

(5) you don't get involved in the day-to-day stuff

(6) I think I'd get burned out.

(7) I've just set up my own baking business.

(8) I don't have to pay rent.

(9) the greatest rise in self-employment has been in professional and business services.

(10) It's not enough to be good at something.

Chapter 7 No. 1 Key expressions

(1) The Modern Language Association has put together data on the numbers of speakers and the locations of the thirty most commonly spoken languages in The United States.

(2) if a language other than English was spoken at home." If the answer was "Yes," then the person was asked to name the language. 

(3) Of course, English is the number one language, Spanish is the second most common, Chinese is the third, and French is the fourth.

(4) you can look up a particular language, let's say, Korean, and see how many speakers there are throughout the United States.

(5) Of the people who speak another language, 86 percent speak Spanish.

(6) I'd like to open this up for discussion.

(7) And I think it's also important to understand the cultural make-up of the United States.

(8) OK, we're out of time,

Chapter 7 No. 2 Key expressions

(1) we'll give some examples of programs being implemented.

(2) There are actually differing views on how many languages exist in the world today.

(3) Unfortunately many of these languages are in danger of disappearing, of becoming extinct.

(4) An article in the magazine Nature in 2003 states that there are 46 different people around the world who are the last remaining speakers of their language.

(5) it's also hard to find agreement on the number of languages that are at risk of disappearing.

(6) There were fewer and fewer speakers of Welsh in Wales as more people started speaking English exclusively.

Chapter 8 No. 1 Key Expressions

(1) Like...a lot of inventors were amateurs, and some of them were considered to be nuts...crazy!

(2) They believed absolutely in what they were doing.

(3) He was a keen photographer and he was about to go on vacation to the Caribbean, to take pictures.

(4) There's got to be an easier way to take photographs!

(5) People were asking questions: "Hmmm. I wonder if we could have a machine that does this?" or you know, "why can't we do that?"

(6) It took Remington years to convince people to use a typewriter.

Chapter 8 No. 2 Key Expressions

(1) Now, if you'd like to step this way...we're going to look at this machine over here...

(2) Fortune magazine called it "the most successful product ever marketed in America."

Newsweek, Time, Reader’s Digest,

(3) Just think (for a moment) how often you use a photocopy machine, or a laser printer.

(4) At one point the two of them lived in a chicken coop with a bare concrete floor!

(5) He put himself through college, first junior college and then the California Institute of Technology.

(6) He was an inventive type of guy.

(7) Carlson kept pushing them, and finally in 1960---that's years later!

(8) It sold like hot cakes.

Chapter 9 No. 1 Key expressions

(1) We had a lot of e-mails and phone calls in response to that program.

(2) I don't mind advertising on billboards and bus shelters,

(3) I was very upset by some of the advertising that you showed in places of natural beauty, like the billboards in the desert.

(4) No matter how good your product is, if you can't attract customers you won't succeed.

(5) we'd all pay a lot more for the products and services we take for granted.

(6) I am shocked at how much marketing is geared toward...purposely geared toward young children that are just too young to know that...that they're being marketed to.

(7) I would like to have seen more specific guidelines for parents on how to help children deal with the thousands of commercial messages that they face every day

Chapter 9 No.2 Key Expressions

Chapter 10 No.1 Key expressions

Chapter 10 No. 2 Key expressions

Chapter 11 No. 1 Key expressions

Chapter 11 No. 2 Key expressions